Dye; Dyeing:
di, di'-ing (me'oddam, hamuc, tebhul, cebha‘): Four different Hebrew words have been translated "dyed": the King James Version
(a) me'-oddam, found in Ex 25:5; 26:14; 35:7; 36:19; 39:34;
(b) hamuts (the Revised Version, margin "crimsoned") (Isa 63:1);
(c) tebhul (Eze 23:15). Tebhul is probably more correctly rendered "flowing turban" as in the Revised Version (British and American) of the above verses (Brown-Driver-Briggs' Hebrew Lexicon);
(d) gebha‘, "dyed" is so translated in the American Standard Revised Version of Jud 5:30 (BDB); compare Arabic sabagh.
The above references and other color words mentioned elsewhere (see COLOR) indicate that the Israelites were acquainted with dyed stuffs, even if they themselves did not do the dyeing. An analysis of the various Biblical references shows but four colors which were produced on cloth by dyeing, namely, purple, blue (violet), crimson and scarlet. Of these, purple is the one best known because of the many historical references to it. It was the symbol of royalty and luxury. Because of its high price, due to the expensive method of obtaining it, only royalty and the rich could afford purple attire. One writer tells us that the dyestuff was worth its weight in silver. Probably it was because of its scarcity, and because it was one of the very limited number of dyes known, rather than for any remarkable beauty of color, that the purple was so much sought after. If Pliny's estimate is to be accredited, then "in the dye the smell of it was offensive and the color itself was harsh, of a greenish hue and strongly resembling that of the sea when in a tempestuous state."
1. Purple and Blue:
The purple and blue dyes were extracted from shellfish. The exact process used by the ancients is still a question in spite of the attempts of early writers to describe it. Tyre and Sidon were noted as the suppliers of these colors, hence, the name "Tyrian purple." The inhabitants of these cities were at first simply dealers in the purple (Eze 27:7,24), but they afterward became the manufacturers, as the heaps of the emptied shells of the Murex trunculus, which still exist in the vicinity of these cities, testify. The pigment was secreted by a gland in the lining of the stomach. The shell was punctured and the fish removed in order to secure the dye. The juice, at first whitish, changed on exposure to yellowish or greenish and finally to red, amethyst or purple, according to the treatment. A modified color was obtained by first dipping the textile in a cochineal bath and then in the purple, Tyrian purple was considered most valuable when it was "exactly the color of clotted blood and of a blackish hue" (Pliny). See also LYDIA; THYATIRA.
Besides the shellfish above mentioned, several other species are noted by different writers, namely, Murex branderis, Murex erinaceus, Murex buccinum (purpura haemastoma). This latter species is still used by the dwellers on the shores where it is found. Various species of the murex are found today at Haifa (Syria), about the Greek isles and on the North coast of Africa. The purple color has been produced from them by modern chemists, but it is of historical interest only, in the light of the discovery of modern artificial dyes with which it could not compete commercially.
Two words have been used in the Hebrew Bible to describe the colors from shellfish:
(a) ‘argaman (Greek porphura). This has been translated "purple";
(b) tekheleth which was probably a shade of violet, but has been translated "blue" in both the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American).
2. Crimson and Scarlet:
As indicated elsewhere (See COLORS), three Hebrew words have been rendered crimson or scarlet:
(a) karmil (compare Arabic kirmiz and English "carmine"),
(b) tola', and
(c) shani. We know nothing further about the method of producing these colors than that they were both obtained from the kermes insect which feeds on a species of live oak growing in Southern Europe and Turkey in Asia. The modern dyer can obtain several shades from the cochineal insect by varying the mordants or assistants used with the dye. Pliny mentions the same fact as being known by the ancient Egyptians. Some of the Syrian dyers still use the kermes, commonly called dud ("worms"), although most of them hove resorted to the artificial European dyes which they indiscriminately call dud frangy ("foreign worms").
The "rams' skins dyed red" mentioned in Exodus are still made in Syria. After the ram's skin has been tanned in sumac, it is laid out on a table and a solution of the dye, made by boiling dud in water, is rubbed on. After the dye is dry, the skin is rubbed with oil and finally polished. No native product is more characteristic of the country than the slippers, Bedouin shoes, and other leather articles made from "rams' skins dyed red" (see TANNER).
3. Other Dyes Probably Known:
Other dyes probably known were:
(1) Madder. In Jud 10:1, we read that "after Abimelech there arose to save Israel Tola the son of Puah." These were probably names of clans. In the Hebrew they are also color words. Tola‘ is the scarlet dye and pu'ah, if, as is probable, it is the same as the Arabic fuwah, means "madder." This would add another dyestuff. Until the discovery of alizarin, which is artificial madder, the growing of fuwah was one of the industries of Cyprus and Syria. It was exported to Europe and was also used locally for producing "Turkey red" on cotton and for dyeing dull reds on wool for rug making (see THYATIRA). It was the custom near Damascus for a father to plant new madder field for each son that was born. The field began to yield in time to support the boy and later become his inheritance. Madder is mentioned in the Talmud and by early Latin writers. A Saracenic helmet and a shield of similar origin, in the possession of the writer, are lined with madder-dyed cotton.
(2) Indigo. Another dye has been discovered among the Egyptian mummy cloths, namely, indigo. Indigo blue was used in weaving to form the borders of the cloths. This pigment was probably imported from India.
(3) Yellows and Browns. Yellows and browns of doubtful origin have also been found in the Egyptian tombs. The Jews acquired from the Phoenicians the secret of dyeing, and later held the monopoly in this trade in some districts. A Jewish guild of purple dyers is mentioned on a tombstone in Hieropolis. In the 12th century AD Jews were still dyers and glass workers at Tyre. Akhissar, a Jewish stronghold in Asia Minor, was famous as a dyeing city.
LITERATURE.
See "Crafts" especially in Wilkinson, Perrot and Chipiez, Jew Encyclopedia, and HDB.
Written by James A. Patch
Color; Colors:
kul'-er, kul'-erz: The word translated "color" in the King James Version is ayin, which literally means "eye" or "appearance," and has been so translated in the Revised Version (British and American). In the New Testament the Greek prophasis, has the meaning of pretense or show (Ac 27:30; compare Re 17:4 the King James Version). The references to Joseph's coat of many colors (Ge 37:3,13,32) and "garments of divers colors" (2Sa 13:18,19) probably do not mean the color of the garment at all, but the form, as suggested in the American Revised Version, margin, "a long garment with sleeves." In Jud 5:30 the word for "dip" or "dye" appears in the original and has been so translated in the American Standard Revised Version. (see DYE). In 1Ch 29:2 riqmah, meaning "variegated," hence, "varicolored," is found. In Isa 54:11, pukh is used. This name was applied to the sulfide of antimony (Arabic kochl) used for painting the eyes. Hence, the American Revised Version, margin rendering "antimony" instead of "fair colors" (see PAINT). In Eze 16:16 Tala', is found, meaning "covered with pieces" or "spotted," hence, by implication "divers colors."
Although the ancient Hebrews had no specific words for "color," "paint" or "painter," still, as we know, they constantly met with displays of the art of coloring among the Babylonians (Eze 23:14) and Egyptians and the inhabitants of Palestine Pottery, glazed bricks, glassware, tomb walls, sarcophagi, wood and fabrics were submitted to the skill of the colorist. This skill probably consisted in bringing out striking effects by the use of a few primary colors, rather than in any attempt at the blending of shades which characterizes modern coloring. That the gaudy show of their heathen neighbors attracted the children of Israel is shown by such passages as Jud 8:27; Eze 23:12,16.
Two reasons may be given for the indefiniteness of many of the Biblical references to color.
(1) The origin of the Hebrew people: They had been wandering tribes or slaves with no occasion to develop a color language.
(2) Their religious laws: These forbade expression in color or form (Ex 20:4). Yielding to the attractions of gorgeous display was discouraged by such prophets as Ezekiel, who had sickened of the abominations of the Chaldeans (Eze 23:14,15,16); "And I said unto them, Cast ye away every man the abominations of his eyes" (Eze 20:7).
Indefiniteness of color language is common to oriental literature, ancient and modern. This does not indicate a want of appreciation of color but a failure to analyze and define color effects. The inhabitants of Syria and Palestine today delight in brilliant colors. Bright yellow, crimson, magenta and green are used for adornment with no evident sense of fitness, according to the foreigners' eyes, other than their correspondence with the glaring brightness of the eastern skies. A soapmaker once told the writer that in order to make his wares attractive to the Arabs he colored them a brilliant crimson or yellow. A peasant chooses without hesitation a flaring magenta or yellow or green zun-nar (girdle), rather than one of somber hues. The oriental student in the chemical or physical laboratory often finds his inability to distinguish or classify color a real obstacle. His closest definition of a color is usually "lightish" or "darkish." This is not due to color blindness but to a lack of education, and extends to lines other than color distinctions. The colloquial language of Palestine today is poor in words denoting color, and an attempt to secure from a native a satisfactory description of some simple color scheme is usually disappointing. The harmonious color effects which have come to us from the Orient have been, in the past, more the result of accident (see DYE) than of deliberate purpose, as witness the clashing of colors where modern artificial dyes have been introduced.
This inability of the peoples of Bible lands to define colors is an inheritance from past ages, a consideration which helps us to appreciate the vagueness of many of the Biblical references.
The following color words occur in the King James Version or Revised Version:
(1) bay,
(2) black,
(3) blue,
(4) brown,
(5) crimson,
(6) green,
(7) grey,
(8) hoar,
(9) purple,
(10) red,
(11) scarlet,
(12) sorrel,
(13) vermilion,
(14) white,
(15) yellow.
In addition there are indefinite words indicating mixtures of light and dark:
(a) grisled (grizzled),
(b) ringstraked (ringstreaked),
(c) speckled,
(d) spotted.
(1) Bay or Red:
Bay or red is more properly translated "strong" in the Revised Version (British and American).
(2) Black (Blackish):
Eight different words have been translated "black." They indicate various meanings such as "dusky like the early dawn," "ashen," "swarthy," "moved with passion." Black is applied to hair (Le 13:31; So 5:11; Mt 5:36); to marble or pavement (Es 1:6); to mourning (Job 30:28,30; Jer 14:2); to passion (Jer 8:21 the King James Version; La 5:10); to horses (Zec 6:2,6; Re 6:5); to the heavens (1Ki 18:45; Job 3:5; Pr 7:9 the King James Version; Jer 4:28; Mic 3:6); to the sun (Re 6:12); to the skin (racial) (So 1:5,6); to flocks (Ge 30:32,33,35,40); to brooks because of ice (Job 6:16).
(3) Blue:
Blue (tekheleth, a color from the cerulean mussel): This word was applied only to fabrics dyed with a special blue dye obtained from a shellfish. See DYE. shesh in one passage of the King James Version is translated "blue" (Es 1:6). It is properly translated in the Revised Version (British and American) "white cloth." "Blueness of a wound" (Pr 20:30) is correctly rendered in the Revised Version (British and American) "stripes that wound." Blue is applied to the fringes, veil, vestments, embroideries, etc., in the description of the ark and tabernacle (Ex 25 ff; Nu 4:6 f; 15:38); to workers in blue (2Ch 2:7,14; 3:14); to palace adornments (Es 1:6); to royal apparel (Es 8:15; Jer 10:9; Eze 23:6; 27:7,24).
(4) Brown:
The Hebrew word meaning "sunburnt" or "swarthy" is translated "black" in the Revised Version (British and American) (Ge 30:32 ff).
(5) Crimson:
Crimson (karmil): This word is probably of Persian origin and applies to the brilliant dye obtained from a bug. A second word tolaath, is also found. Its meaning is the same. See DYE. Crimson is applied to raiment (2Ch 2:7,14; 3:14; Jer 4:30 the King James Version); to sins (Isa 1:18).
(6) Green (Greenish):
This word in the translation refers almost without exception to vegetation. The Hebrew yaraq, literally, "pale," is considered one of the three definite color words used in the Old Testament (see WHITE; RED). The Greek equivalent is chloros; compare English "chlorine." This word occurs in the following vs: Ge 1:30; 9:3; Ex 10:15; Le 2:14 (the King James Version); 23:14 (the King James Version); 2Ki 19:26; Ps 37:2; Isa 15:6; 37:27; Job 39:8; chloros, Mr 6:39; Re 8:7; 9:4. raanan, closely allied in meaning to yaraq, is used to describe trees in the following passages: De 12:2; 1Ki 14:23; 2Ki 16:4; 17:10; 19:26; 2Ch 28:4; Job 15:32; Ps 37:35; 52:8; So 1:16; Isa 57:5; Jer 2:20; 3:6; 11:16; 17:2,8; Eze 6:13; Ho 14:8. In the remaining verses the Hebrew equivalents do not denote color, but the condition of being full of sap, fresh or unripe (compare similar uses in English) (Ge 30:37 (the King James Version); Jud 16:7,8; Ps 23:2; So 2:13; Job 8:16; Eze 17:24; 20:47; Lu 23:31). In Es 1:6 the Hebrew word refers to a fiber, probably cotton, as is indicated by the American Revised Version, margin. Greenish is used to describe leprous spots in Le 13:49; 14:37. The same word is translated "yellow" in Ps 68:13.
(7) Gray:
The Hebrew sebhah, means old age, hence, refers also to the color of the hair in old age (Ge 42:38; 44:29; 44:31; De 32:25; Ps 71:18; Ho 7:9). See Hoar, next paragraph.
(8) Hoar (Hoary):
The same word which in other verses is translated "gray" is rendered "hoar" or "hoary," applying to the hair in 1Ki 2:6,9; Isa 46:4; Le 19:32; Job 41:32; Pr 16:31. Another Hebrew word is translated "hoar" or "hoary," describing "frost" in Ex 16:14; Job 38:29; Ps 147:16.
(9) Purple:
The Hebrew equivalent is argaman; Greek porphura. The latter word refers to the source of the dye, namely, a shell-fish found on the shores of the Mediterranean. See DYE. This color, which varied widely according to the kind of shellfish used and the method of dyeing, was utilized in connection with the adornment of the tabernacle (Ex 25; 26; 27; 28; 35; 36; 38; 39; Nu 4:13). There were workers in purple called to assist in beautifying the temple (2Ch 2:7,14; 3:14). Purple was much used for royal raiment and furnishings (Jud 8:26; Es 1:6; 8:15; So 3:10; Mr 15:17,20; Joh 19:2,5). Purple was typical of gorgeous apparel (Pr 31:22; Jer 10:9; So 7:5; Eze 27:7,16; Lu 16:19; Ac 16:14; Re 17:4; 18:12,16).
(10) Red:
The Hebrew adhom, is from dam, "blood," hence, "bloodlike." This is one of the three distinctive color words mentioned in the Old Testament (see GREEN; WHITE), and is found in most of the references to red. Four other words are used:
(a) chakhlili, probably "darkened" or "clouded" (Ge 49:12; Pr 23:29);
(b) chamar, "to ferment" (Ps 75:8 margin; Isa 27:2 the King James Version);
(c) bahaT, probably "to glisten" (Es 1:6);
(d) purros "firelike" (Mt 16:2,3; Re 6:4; 12:3). Red is applied to dyed skins (Ex 25:5; 26:14; 35:7,23; 36:19; 39: 34); to the color of animals (Nu 19:2; Zec 1:8; 6:2; Re 6:4; 12:3); to the human skin (Ge 25:25; ruddy, 1Sa 16:12; 17:42; So 5:10; La 4:7); to the eyes (Ge 49:12; Pr 23:29); to sores (Le 13); to wine (Ps 75:8 m; Pr 23:31; Isa 27:2 the King James Version); to water (2Ki 3:22); to pavement (Es 1:6); to pottage (Ge 25:30); to apparel (Isa 63:2); to the sky (Mt 16:2,3); to sins (Isa 1:18); to a shield (Na 2:3).
(11) Scarlet:
Scarlet and crimson colors were probably from the same source (see CRIMSON; DYE). tolaath, or derivatives have been translated by both "scarlet" and "crimson" (Greek kokkinos). A Chaldaic word for purple has thrice been translated "scarlet" in the King James Version (Da 5:7,16,29). Scarlet is applied to fabrics or yarn used
(a) in the equipment of the tabernacle (Ex 25 ff; Nu 4:8);
(b) in rites in cleansing lepers (Le 14); in ceremony of purification (Nu 19:6); to royal or gorgeous apparel (2Sa 1:24; Pr 31:21; La 4:5; "purple"; Na 2:3; Mt 27:28; Re 17:4; 18:12,16); to marking thread (Ge 38:28,30; Jos 2:18,21); to lips (So 4:3); to sins (Isa 1:18); to (Re 17:3); to wool (Heb 9:19).
(12) Sorrel:
This word occurs once in the Revised Version (British and American) (Zec 1:8).
(13) Vermilion:
This word, shashar, occurs in two passages (Jer 22:14; Eze 23:14). Vermilion of modern arts is a sulfide of mercury. It is not at all improbable that the paint referred to was an oxide of iron. This oxide is still taken from the ground in Syria and Palestine and used for decorative outlining.
(14) White:
The principal word for denoting whiteness in the Hebrew was labhan, a distinctive color word. Some of the objects to which it was applied show that it Da was used as we use the word "white" (Ge 49:12). Mt. Lebanon was probably named because of its snow-tipped peaks (Jer 18:14). White is applied to goats (Ge 30:35); to rods (Ge 30:37); to teeth (Ge 49:12); to leprous hairs and spots (Le 13; Nu 12:10); to garments (Ec 9:8; 7:9); as symbol of purity (Da 11:35; 12:10; Isa 1:18); to horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3,6); to tree branches (Joe 1:7); to coriander seed (Ex 16:31). The corresponding Greek word, leukos, is used in New Testament. It is applied to hair (Mt 5:36; Re 1:14); to raiment (Mt 17:2; 28:3; Mr 9:3; 16:5; Lu 9:29; Joh 20:12; Ac 1:10; Re 3:4,5,18; 6:11; 7:9,13,14; 19:14); to horses (Re 6:2; 19:11,14); to a throne (Re 20:11); to stone (Re 2:17); to a cloud (Re 14:14). Besides labhan, four other Hebrew words have been translated "white":
(a) chori, or chur, meaning "bleached," applied to bread (Ge 40:16); to linen (Es 1:6; 8:15);
(b) tsach, or tsachor, literally, "dazzling," is applied to asses (Jud 5:10); to human appearance (So 5:10); to wool (Eze 27:18);
(c) dar, probably mother of pearl or alabaster (Es 1:6);
(d) rir, literally, "saliva," and, from resemblance, "white of egg" (Job 6:6).
(15) Yellow:
This word occurs in Es 1:6 to describe pavement; in Le 13 to describe leprous hair; in Ps 68:13 to describe gold.
Mixtures of colors:
(a) grizzled (grisled), literally, "spotted as with hail," applied to goats (Ge 31:10,12); to horses (Zec 6:3,6);
(b) ringstreaked (ringstraked), literally, "striped with bands," applied to animals (Ge 30:35 ff; 31:8 ff);
(c) speckled, literally, "dotted or spotted," applied to cattle and goats (Ge 30:32 ff; 31:8 ff); to a bird (Jer 12:9); to horses (Zec 1:8 the King James Version);
(d) spotted, literally, "covered with patches," applied to cattle and goats (Ge 30:32 ff). In Jude 1:23 "spotted" means "defiled."
Figurative: For figurative uses, see under separate COLORS.
LITERATURE.
Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient Egypt, History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria, History of Art in Phoenicia and its Dependencies; Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians; Jewish Encyclopedia; EB; Delitzsch, Iris.
Written by James A. Patch
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