Drunkenness:
drunk'-'-n-nes (raweh, shikkaron, shethi; methe):
I. Its Prevalance.
The Bible affords ample proof that excessive drinking of intoxicants was a common vice among the Hebrews, as among other ancient peoples. This is evident not only from individual cases of intoxication, as Noah (Ge 9:21), Lot (Ge 19:33,35), Nabal (1Sa 25:36), Uriah made drunk by David (2Sa 11:13), Amnon (2Sa 13:28), Elah, king of Israel (1Ki 16:9), Benhadad, king of Syria, and his confederates (1Ki 20:16), Holofernes (Judith 13:2), etc., but also from frequent references to drunkenness as a great social evil. Thus, Amos proclaims judgment on the voluptuous and dissolute rulers of Samaria "that drink wine in (large) bowls" (Am 6:6), and the wealthy ladies who press their husbands to join them in a carousal (Am 4:1); he also complains that this form of self-indulgence was practiced even at the expense of the poor and under the guise of religion, at the sacrificial meals (Am 2:8; see also Isa 5:11,12,22; 28:1-8; 56:11 f). Its prevalence is also reflected in many passages in the New Testament (e. g. Mt 24:49; Lu 21:34; Ac 2:13,15; Eph 5:18; 1Th 5:7). Paul complains that at Corinth even the love- feast of the Christian church which immediately preceded the celebration of the Eucharist, was sometimes the scene of excessive drinking (1Co 11:21). It must, however, be noted that it is almost invariably the well-to-do who are charged with this vice in the Bible. There is no evidence to prove that it prevailed to any considerable extent among the common people. Intoxicants were then an expensive luxury, beyond the reach of the poorer classes. See DRINK, STRONG.
II. Its Symptoms and Effects.
These are most vividly portrayed:
(1) some of its physical symptoms (Job 12:25; Ps 107:27; Pr 23:29; Isa 19:14; 28:8; 29:9; Jer 25:16);
(2) its mental effects: exhilaration (Ge 43:34), jollity and mirth (1 Esdras 3:20), forgetfulness (1 Esdras 3:20), loss of understanding and balance of judgment (Isa 28:7; Ho 4:11);
(3) its effects on man's happiness and prosperity: its immediate effect is to make one oblivious of his misery; but ultimately it "biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder," and leads to woe and sorrow (Pr 23:29-32) and to poverty (Pr 23:21; compare Pr 21:17; Ecclesiasticus 19:1); hence, wine is called a "mocker" deceiving the unwise (Pr 20:1);
(4) its moral and spiritual effects: it leads to a maladministration of justice (Pr 31:5; Isa 5:23), provokes anger and a contentious, brawling spirit (Pr 20:1; 23:29; 1 Esdras 3:22; Ecclesiasticus 31:26,29 f), and conduces to a profligate life (Eph 5:18; "riot," literally, profligacy). It is allied with gambling and licentiousness (Joe 3:3), and indecency (Ge 9:21 f). Above all, it deadens the spiritual sensibilities, produces a callous indifference to religious influences and destroys all serious thought (Isa 5:12).
III. Attitude of the Bible to the Drink Question.
Intemperance is condemned in uncompromising terms by the Old Testament and the New Testament, as well as by the semi- canonical writings. While total abstinence is not prescribed as a formal and universal rule, broad principles are laid down, especially in the New Testament, which point in that direction.
1. In the Old Testament:
In the Old Testament, intemperance is most repugnant to the stern ethical rigorism of the prophets, as well as to the more utilitarian sense of propriety of the "wisdom" writers. As might be expected, the national conscience was but gradually quickened to the evil of immoderate drinking. In the narratives of primitive times, excessive indulgence, or at least indulgence to the point of exhilaration, is mentioned without censure as a natural thing, especially on festive occasions (as in Ge 43:34 the Revised Version, margin). But a conscience more sensitive to the sinfulness of overindulgence was gradually developed, and is reflected in the denunciations of the prophets and the warning of the wise men (compare references under I and II, especially Isa 5:11 f, Isa 22$; 28:1-8; Pr 23:29-33). Nowhere is the principle of total abstinence inculcated as a rule applicable to all. In particular cases it was recognized as a duty. Priests while on duty in the sanctuary were to abstain from wine and strong drink (Le 10:9; compare Eze 44:21). Nazirites were to abstain from all intoxicants during the period of their vows (Nu 6:3 f; compare Am 2:12), yet not on account of the intoxicating qualities of wine, but because they represented the simplicity of the older pastoral life, as against the Canaanite civilization which the vine symbolized (W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, 84 f). So also the Rechabites abstained from wine (Jer 35:6,8,14) and social conveniences, because they regarded the nomadic life as more conducive to Yahweh-worship than agricultural and town life, with its temptations to Baal-worship. In Daniel and his comrades we have another instance of voluntary abstinence (Da 1:8-16). These, however, are isolated instances. Throughout the Old Testament the use of wine appears as practically universal, and its value is recognized as a cheering beverage (Jud 9:13; Ps 104:15; Pr 31:7), which enables the sick to forget their pains (Pr 31:6). Moderation, however, is strongly inculcated and there are frequent warnings against the temptation and perils of the cup.
2. Deutero-Canonical and Extra-Canonical Writings:
In Apocrypha, we have the attitude of prudence and common sense, but the prophetic note of stern denunciation is wanting. The path of wisdom is the golden mean. "Wine is as good as life to men, if thou drink it in its measure;.... wine drunk in season and to satisfy is joy of heart, and gladness of soul: wine drunk largely is bitterness of soul, with provocation and conflict" (Ecclesiasticus 31:27-30 the Revised Version (British and American)). A vivid picture of the effects of wine-drinking is given in 1 Esdras. 3:18-24. Stronger teaching on the subject is given in the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs. The use of wine is permitted to him who can use it temperately, but abstinence is enjoined as the wiser course (Testament to the Twelve Patriarchs, Jud 1:16:3).
3. In the New Testament:
In the New Testament, intemperance is treated as a grave sin. Only once, indeed, does our Lord explicitly condemn drunkenness (Lu 21:34), though it is implicitly condemned in other passages (Mt 24:49 =Lu 12:45). The meagerness of the references in our Lord's teaching is probably due to the fact already mentioned, that it was chiefly prevalent among the wealthy, and not among the poorer classes to whom our Lord mainly ministered. The references in Paul's writings are very numerous (Ga 5:21; Eph 5:18, et al.). Temperance and sobriety in all things are everywhere insisted on (e. g. Ac 24:25; Ga 5:23; 2Pe 1:6). A bishop and those holding honorable position in the church should not be addicted to wine (1Ti 3:2 f; Tit 1:7 f; 2:2 f). Yet Jesus and His apostles were not ascetics, and the New Testament gives no rough-and-ready prohibition of strong drink on principle. In contrast with John the Baptist, who was a Nazirite from birth (Lu 1:15), Jesus was called by His enemies a "wine-bibber" (Mt 11:19). He took part in festivities in which wine was drunk (Joh 2:10).
There are indications that He regarded wine as a source of innocent enjoyment (Lu 5:38 f; 17:8). To insist on a distinction between intoxicating and unfermented wine is a case of unjustifiable special pleading. It must be borne in mind that the drink question is far more complex and acute in modern than in Biblical times, and that the conditions of the modern world have given rise to problems which were not within the horizon of New Testament writers. The habit of excessive drinking has spread enormously among the common people, owing largely to the cheapening of alcoholic drinks. The fact that the evil exists today in greater proportions may call for a drastic remedy and a special crusade. But rather than defend total abstinence by a false or forced exegesis, it were better to admit that the principle is not formally laid down in the New Testament, while maintaining that there are broad principles enunciated, which in view of modern conditions should lead to voluntary abstinence from all intoxicants. Such principles may be found, e. g. in our Lord's teaching in Mt 16:24 f; Mr 9:42 f, and in the great Pauline passages-Ro 14:13-21; 1Co 8:8-13.
IV. Drunkenness in Metaphor.
Drunkenness very frequently supplies Biblical writers with striking metaphors and similes. Thus, it symbolizes intellectual or spiritual perplexity (Job 12:25; Isa 19:14; Jer 23:9), bewilderment and helplessness under calamity (Jer 13:13; Eze 23:33). It furnishes a figure for the movements of sailors on board ship in a storm (Ps 107:27), and for the convulsions of the earth on the day of Yahweh (Isa 24:20). Yahweh's "cup of staggering" is a symbol of affliction, the fury of the Lord causing stupor and confusion (Isa 51:17-23; compare Isa 63:6; Jer 25:15 ff; Eze 23:33; Ps 75:8). The sword and the arrow are said to be sodden with drink like a drunkard with wine (De 32:42; Jer 46:10). In the Apocalypse, Babylon (i.e. Rome) is portrayed under the figure of a "great harlot" who makes kings "drunken with the wine of her fornication"; and who is herself "drunken with the blood of the saints, and... of the martyrs of Jesus" (Re 17:2,6).
Written by D. Miall Edwards
Drunkenness: General Scriptures Concerning
Deu 21:20, 21; 29:19-21; 1Sa 1:14; Psa 69:12; Pro 20:1; 21:17; 23:20, 21, 29-35; 31:4-7; Isa 5:11, 12, 22; 19:14; 24:9, 11; 28:1, 3, 7, 8; 56:12; Jer 25:27; Hsa 4:11; 7:5, 14; Joe 1:5; 3:3; Amo 2:8, 12; 6:1, 6; Mic 2:11; Nah 1:10; Hab 2:15-17; Mat 24:49; Luk 12:45; 21:34; Rom 13:13; Gal 5:19-21; Eph 5:18; 1Th 5:7, 8
Drunkenness: Figurative
Psa 73:10; 75:8; Isa 28:8; 51:17, 21-23; 63:6; Jer 25:15, 16, 27, 28; 51:7-9; Lam 3:15; Eze 23:31-34; Hab 2:15, 16
See ABSTINENCE; DRUNKARD; SOBRIETY; WINE.
Drunkenness: Instances Of
Noah,
Gen 9:21.
Lot,
Gen 19:33.
Nabal,
1Sa 25:36.
Uriah,
2Sa 11:13.
Elah,
1Ki 16:9.
Ben-hadad and his thirty-two confederate kings,
1Ki 20:16.
Ahasuerus,
Est 1:10, 11.
Belshazzar,
Dan 5:1-6.
Drunkenness: Falsely Accused Of
Hannah,
1Sa 1:12-16.
Jesus,
Mat 11:19.
The Apostles,
Act 2:13-15.
Drunkenness:
Deu 21:20-21; Deu 29:191Sa 1:14Psa 69:12Pro 20:1; Pro 21:17; Pro 23:20-21; Pro 23:29-35; Pro 31:4-7Isa 5:11-12; Isa 5:22; Isa 19:14; Isa 24:9; Isa 24:11; Isa 28:1; Isa 28:3; Isa 28:7; Isa 56:12Jer 25:27Hsa 4:11; Hsa 7:5; Hsa 7:14Joe 1:5; Joe 3:3Amo 2:8; Amo 2:12Mic 2:11Nah 1:10Hab 2:15-16Mat 24:49Luk 12:45; Luk 21:34Rom 13:131Cr 5:11; 1Cr 6:9-10Gal 5:19-21Eph 5:181Th 5:7Drunkenness: Forbidden
Eph 5:18
Drunkenness: Caution Against
Luk 21:34
Drunkenness: Is a Work of the Flesh
Gal 5:21
Drunkenness: Is Debasing
Isa 28:8
Drunkenness: Is Inflaming
Isa 5:11
Drunkenness: Overcharges the Heart
Luk 21:34
Drunkenness: Takes Away the Heart
Hsa 4:11
Drunkenness: Leads To
Poverty
Pro 21:17; 23:21
Strife
Pro 23:29,30
Woe and sorrow
Pro 23:29,30
Error
Isa 28:7
Contempt of God's works
Isa 5:12
Scorning
Hsa 7:5
Rioting and wantonness
Rom 13:13
Drunkenness: The Wicked Addicted To
Dan 5:1-4
Drunkenness: False Teachers Often Addicted To
Isa 56:12
Drunkenness: Folly of Yielding To
Pro 20:1
Drunkenness: Avoid Those Given To
Pro 23:20; 1Cr 5:11
Drunkenness: Denunciations Against
Those given to
Isa 5:11,12; 28:1-3
Those who encourage
Hab 2:15
Drunkenness: Excludes from Heaven
1Cr 6:10; Gal 5:21
Drunkenness: Punishment Of
Deu 21:20; Joe 1:5,6; Amo 6:6,7; Mat 24:49-51
Drunkenness: Exemplified
Noah
Gen 9:21
Nabal
1Sa 25:36
Uriah
2Sa 11:13
Elah
1Ki 16:9,10
Benhadad
1Ki 20:16
Belshazzar
Dan 5:4
Corinthians
1Cr 11:21
Drink, Strong:
(shekhar; sikera; from shakhar, "to be or become drunk"; probably from the same root as sugar, saccharine): With the exception of Nu 28:7, "strong drink" is always coupled with "wine." The two terms are commonly used as mutually exclusive, and as together exhaustive of all kinds of intoxicants.
Originally shekhar seems to have been a general term for intoxicating drinks of all kinds, without reference to the material out of which they were made; and in that sense, it would include wine. Reminiscences of this older usage may be found in Nu 28:7 (where shekhar is clearly equivalent to wine, as may be seen by comparing it with 28:14, and with Ex 29:40, where the material of the drink offering is expressly designated "wine").
When the Hebrews were living a nomadic life, before their settlement in Canaan, the grape-wine was practically unknown to them, and there would be no need of a special term to describe it. But when they settled down to an agricultural life, and came to cultivate the vine, it would become necessary to distinguish it from the older kinds of intoxicants; hence, the borrowed word yayin ("wine") was applied to the former, while the latter would be classed together under the old term shekhar, which would then come to mean all intoxicating beverages other than wine (Le 10:9; Nu 6:3; De 14:26; Pr 20:1; Isa 24:9). The exact nature of these drinks is not clearly indicated in the Bible itself. The only fermented beverage other than grape-wine specifically named is pomegranate-wine (So 8:2: "the juice of my pomegranate," the Revised Version, margin "sweet wine of my pomegranate"); but we may infer that other kinds of shekhar besides that obtained from pomegranates were in use, such as drinks made from dates, honey, raisins, barley, apples, etc. Probably Jerome (circa 400 AD) was near the mark when he wrote, "Sikera in the Hebrew tongue means every kind of drink which can intoxicate, whether made from grain or from the juice of apples, or when honeycombs are boiled down into a sweet and strange drink, or the fruit of palm oppressed into liquor, and when water is colored and thickened from boiled herbs" (Ep. ad Nepotianum). Thus shekhar is a comprehensive term for all kinds of fermented drinks, excluding wine.
Probably the most common sort of shekhar used in Biblical times was palm or date-wine. This is not actually mentioned in the Bible, and we do not meet with its Hebrew name yen temarim ("wine of dates") until the Talmudic period. But it is frequently referred to in the Assyrian-Babylonian contract tablets (cuneiform), and from this and other evidence we infer that it was very well known among the ancient Semitic peoples. Moreover, it is known that the palm tree flourished abundantly in Biblical lands, and the presumption is therefore very strong that wine made of the juice of dates was a common beverage. It must not be supposed, however, that the term shekhar refers exclusively to date-wine. It rather designates all intoxicating liquors other than grape-wine, while in few cases it probably includes even wine.
There can be no doubt that shekhar was intoxicating. This is proved
(1) from the etymology of the word, it being derived from shakhar, "to be or become drunk" (Ge 9:21; Isa 29:9; Jer 25:27, etc.); compare the word for drunkard (shikkar), and for drunkenness (shikkaron) from the same root;
(2) from descriptions of its effects: e. g. Isaiah graphically describes the stupefying effect of shekhar on those who drink it excessively (Isa 28:7,8).
Hannah defended herself against the charge of being drunk by saying, "I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink," i.e. neither wine nor any other intoxicating liquor (1Sa 1:15). The attempt made to prove that it was simply the unfermented juice of certain fruits is quite without foundation. Its immoderate use is strongly condemned (Isa 5:11,12; Pr 20:1; see DRUNKENNESS). It was forbidden to ministering priests (Le 10:9), and to Nazirites (Nu 6:3; Jud 13:4,7,14; compare Lu 1:15), but was used in the sacrificial meal as drink offering (Nu 28:7), and could be bought with the tithe-money and consumed by the worshipper in the temple (De 14:26). It is commended to the weak and perishing as a means of deadening their pain; but not to princes, lest it might lead them to pervert justice (Pr 31:4-7).
Written by D. Miall Edwards
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